2inmanycases, non-STEMoccupationsmayrequire technical skillsif workersaremanagersofSTEMoccupationsegchief technologyoffcer directof engineering, technical product manager). Mass retirement provides an additional challenge. The primary driver of US economic growth over the past two decades has been a rise in the number of total hours worked, a proxy for overall labor supply.148 As fertility rates have fallen over the past several decades, the population has aged, and the labor force is beginning to grow noticeably older, affecting sectors across the board. Nearly all occupations have an older workforce than they did 15 years ago (Exhibit 21). For example, 20 percent of construction workers are over 55, up one-third since 2010. For healthcare support, the number is 25 percent, nearly a 50 percent jump.149 Worker shortages across a range of high- and low-skill occupations are already a concern. Many seen stubbornly low rates of productivity growth. Healthcare, for example, has had persistently high the past few decades.150 In a 2024 survey, more than half of US construction firms reported project delays due to worker shortages.151 Many of these jobs require a large portion of human-centric skills, in which Al or automation has lower near-term potential to help fil workforce gaps.152 At 250, sustaining America's competitive edge